As Russia's invasion of Ukraine appears set to escalate with an imminent new offensive, Europe remains divided in its strategy toward Russia. During a year of war, three contrasting approaches have emerged among European states – offensive, defensive, and submissive. All three positions affect the military assistance given to Ukraine, the posture toward negotiations between Kyiv and Moscow, and perceptions about future relations with Russia. A second group of European states are largely defensive and seek to restore the pre-war arrangements with Russia. The remainder of the European states is either neutral, defer to their larger neighbors, or remain flexible in their responses to the war.
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